Princeton

Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey. Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth as the College of New Jersey, Princeton is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution.[9][10][a] The institution moved to Newark in 1747, and then to the current site nine years later. It officially became a university in 1896 and was subsequently renamed Princeton University.

The university is governed by the Trustees of Princeton University and has an endowment of $37.7 billion, the largest endowment per student in the United States. Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering to approximately 8,500 students on its 600 acres (2.4 km2) main campus. It offers postgraduate degrees through the Princeton School of Public and International Affairs, the School of Engineering and Applied Science, the School of Architecture and the Bendheim Center for Finance. The university also manages the Department of Energy's Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory and is home to the NOAA's Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity" and has one of the largest university libraries in the world.[15]

Princeton uses a residential college system and is known for its upperclassmen eating clubs. The university has over 500 student organizations. Princeton students embrace a wide variety of traditions from both the past and present. The university is a NCAA Division I school and competes in the Ivy League. The school's athletic team, the Princeton Tigers, has won the most titles in its conference and has sent many students and alumni to the Olympics.

As of October 2021, 75 Nobel laureates, 16 Fields Medalists and 16 Turing Award laureates have been affiliated with Princeton University as alumni, faculty members, or researchers. In addition, Princeton has been associated with 21 National Medal of Science awardees, 5 Abel Prize awardees, 11 National Humanities Medal recipients, 215 Rhodes Scholars and 137 Marshall Scholars. Two U.S. Presidents, twelve U.S. Supreme Court Justices (three of whom currently serve on the court) and numerous living industry and media tycoons and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princeton's alumni body. Princeton has graduated many members of the U.S. Congress and the U.S. Cabinet, including eight Secretaries of State, three Secretaries of Defense and two Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

Princeton University, founded as the College of New Jersey, was shaped much in its formative years by the "Log College", a seminary founded by the Reverend William Tennent at Neshaminy, Pennsylvania in about 1726. While no legal connection ever existed, many of the pupils and adherents from the Log College would go on to financially support and become substantially involved in the early years of the university.[13] While early writers considered it as the predecessor of the university,[16] the idea has been rebuked by Princeton historians.[17][13]

The founding of the university itself originated from a split in the Presbyterian church following the Great Awakening.[18] In 1741, New Light Presbyterians were expelled from the Synod of Philadelphia in defense of how the Log College ordained ministers.[19] The four founders of Princeton, who were New Lights, were either expelled or withdrew from the Synod and devised a plan to establish a new college, for they were disappointed with Harvard and Yale's opposition to the Great Awakening and dissatisfied with the limited instruction at the Log College.[19][18] They convinced three other Presbyterians to join them and decided on New Jersey for where to found the school, as at the time, there was no institution between Yale in New Haven, Connecticut and the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia; it was also where some of the founders preached.[20] Although their initial request was rejected by the Anglican governor, Lewis Morrison, the acting governor after Morrison's death, John Hamilton, granted a charter for the College of New Jersey on October 22, 1746.[21][20] In 1747, approximately five months after acquiring the charter, the trustees elected Jonathan Dickinson as president and opened in Elizabeth, New Jersey,[21] where classes were held in Dickinson's residence.[22] With its founding, it became the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States, and one of nine colonial colleges charted before the American Revolution.[9][10] Although initially founded with the goal to train ministers, the founders instead aimed to create a college of liberal arts and sciences.[23][21] Though the school was open to those of any religious denomination,[24] with many of the founders being of Presbyterian faith, the college became the educational and religious capital of Scotch-Irish Presbyterian America.[25]

In 1747, following the death of then President Jonathan Dickinson, the college moved from Elizabeth to Newark, New Jersey, as that was where presidential successor Aaron Burr Sr.'s parsonage was located.[21] That same year, Princeton's first charter came under dispute by Anglicans, but on September 14, 1748, the recently appointed governor Jonathan Belcher granted a second charter.[26][27] Belcher, a Congregationalist, had become alienated with his alma mater, Harvard, and decided to "adopt [the infant college]."[26][24] Belcher would go on to raise funds for the college and donate his 474-volume library, making it one of the largest libraries in the colonies.[26][28]

In 1756, the college moved again to its present campus in Princeton, New Jersey because it was too close to New York.[29][30] Princeton was chosen for its central location in New Jersey and by strong recommendation by Belcher.[26][31] Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal William III of England, a member of the House of Orange-Nassau.[32] The trustees of the College of New Jersey initially suggested that Nassau Hall be named in recognition of Belcher because of his interest in the institution; though, the governor vetoed the request.[26]

Burr, who would die in 1757, devised a curriculum for the school and increased the student body.[33] Following the untimely death of Burr and the college's next three presidents,[34] John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that post until his death in 1794.[35] With his presidency, Witherspoon focused the college on preparing a new generation of both educated clergy and secular leadership in the new American nation.[36][37] To this end, he tightened academic standards, broadened the curriculum, solicited investment for the college, and grew its size.[38][37]

A signer of the Declaration of Independence, Witherspoon and his leadership led the college to becoming influential to the American Revolution.[39][40][41] In 1777, the college became the site for the Battle of Princeton.[39] During the battle, British soldiers briefly occupied Nassau Hall before eventually surrendering to American forces led by General George Washington.[42] During the summer and fall of 1783, the Continental Congress and Washington met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the country's capital for four months; in Nassau Hall is where Congress learned of the peace treaty between the colonies and the British.[43][44] The college did suffer from the revolution, with a depreciated endowment and hefty repair bills for Nassau Hall.[45]

In 1795, President Samuel Stanhope Smith took office, the first alumnus to become president.[46] Nassau Hall suffered a large fire that destroyed its interior in 1802, in which Smith blamed on rebellious students.[47] The college raised enough funds for reconstruction, as well as the construction of two new buildings.[48] In 1807, a large student riot occurred at Nassau Hall, spurred by underlying distrust of educational reforms by Smith away from the Church.[46][49] Following Smith's mishandling of the situation, falling enrollment, and faculty resignations, the trustees of the university offered resignation to Smith, which he accepted.[48] In 1812, Ashbel Green was unanimously elected by the trustees of the college to become the eighth president.[50] After the liberal tenure of Smith, Green represented the conservative "Old Side," in which he introduced rigorous disciplinary rules and heavily embraced religion.[51][52] Even so, believing the College wasn't religious enough, he took a prominent role in establishing the Princeton Theological Seminary next door.[51][50] While student riots were a frequent occurrence during Green's tenure, enrollment did increase under his administration.[53]

In 1823, James Carnahan became president, arriving as an unprepared and timid leader.[54][55] With the College undertaken by conflicting views between students, faculty, and trustees, and enrollment hitting its lowest in years, Carnahan considered closing the university.[54] Carnahan's successor, John Maclean Jr., who was only a professor at the time, recommended saving the university with the help of alumni; as a result, Princeton's alumni association, led by James Madison, was created and began raising funds.[54][56] With Carnahan and Maclean, now vice-president, working as partners, enrollment and faculty increased, tensions decreased, and the College campus expanded.[56] Maclean took over the presidency in 1854 and led the university through the American Civil War.[57] When Nassau Hall burned down again in 1855,[58] Maclean raised funds and used the money to rebuild Nassau Hall and run the university on an austerity budget during the war years.[57] With a third of students from the College being from the South, enrollment fell.[59] Once many of the Southerners left, the campus became a sharp proponent for the Union,[60] even bestowing an honorary degree to President Lincoln.[61]

James McCosh became the college's president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the war.[62] During his two decades of service, he overhauled the curriculum, oversaw an expansion of inquiry into the sciences, recruited distinguished faculty, and supervised the addition of a number of buildings in the High Victorian Gothic style to the campus.[62][63] McCosh's tenure also saw the creation and rise of many extracurricular activities, like the Princeton Glee Club, the Triangle Club, the first intercollegiate football team, and the first permanent eating club,[64] as well as the elimination of Greek life.[65] In 1879, Princeton conferred its first doctorates to James F. Williamson and William Libby, both members of the Class of 1877.[66]

Francis Patton took the presidency in 1888, and although his election was not met by unanimous enthusiasm, he was well-received by undergraduates.[67] Patton's administration was marked with great change, for Princeton's enrollment and faculty had doubled. At the same time, the college underwent large expansion and social life was changing in reflection of the rise in eating clubs and burgeoning interest in athletics.[68] In 1893, the honor system was established, allowing for unproctored exams.[69][70] In 1896, the college officially became university,[71] and as a result, it officially changed its name to Princeton University.[72] In 1900, the Graduate School was formally established.[71] Even with such accomplishments, Patton's administration remained lackluster with its administrative structure[73] and towards its educational standards.[69] Due to profile changes in the board of trustees and dissatisfaction with his administration, he was forced to resign in 1902.[73]

Following Patton's resignation, Woodrow Wilson, an alumnus and popular professor, was elected the 13th president of the university.[74][75] Noticing falling academic standards, Wilson orchestrated significant changes to the curriculum, where freshman and sophomores followed a unified curriculum while juniors and seniors concentrated study in one discipline.[76] Ambitious seniors were allowed to undertake independent work, which would eventually shape Princeton's emphasis on the practice for the future.[77] Wilson further reformed the educational system by introducing the preceptorial system in 1905,[76] a then-unique concept in the United States that augmented the standard lecture method of teaching with a more personal form in which small groups of students, or precepts, could interact with a single instructor, or preceptor, in their field of interest.[78] The changes brought about many new faculty and cemented Princeton's academics for the first half of the 20th century.[79] Due to the tightening of academic standards, enrollment declined severely until 1907.[76] In 1906, the reservoir Lake Carnegie was created by Andrew Carnegie,[80] and the university officially became nonsectarian.[81] Before leaving office, Wilson strengthened the science program to focus on "pure" research and broke the Presbyterian lock on the board of trustees.[74][82] However, he did fail in winning support for the permanent location of the Graduate School and the elimination of the eating clubs, which he proposed replacing with quadrangles, a precursor to the residential college system.[83] Wilson also continued to keep Princeton closed off from accepting Black students.[84] When an aspiring Black student wrote a letter to Wilson, he got his secretary to reply telling him to attend a university where he would be more welcome.[85]

John Grier Hibben became president in 1912 and would remain in the post for two decades.[86] On October 2, 1913, the Princeton University Graduate College was dedicated.[80] When the United States entered World War I in 1917, Hibben allocated all available University resources to the government. As a result, military training schools opened on campus and laboratories and other facilities were used for research and operational programs. Overall, more than 6,000 students served in the armed forces, with 151 dying during the war.[87] After the war, enrollment spiked and the trustees established the system of selective admission in 1922.[88] From the 1920s to the 1930s, the student body featured many students from preparatory schools, zero Black students, and dwindling Jewish enrollment because of quotas.[89] Aside from managing Princeton during WWI, Hibben introduced the senior thesis in 1923 as a part of The New Plan of Study.[90][91] He also brought about great expansion to the university, with the creation of the School of Architecture in 1919, the School of Engineering in 1921, and the School of Public and International Affairs in 1930.[92] By the end of his presidency, the endowment had increased by 374 percent, the total area of the campus doubled, the faculty experienced impressive growth, and the enrollment doubled.[93][91]

Hibben's successor, Harold Willis Dodds would lead the university through the Great Depression, World War II, and the Korean Conflict.[94] With the Great Depression, many students were forced to withdraw due to financial reasons.[95] At the same time, Princeton's reputation in physics and mathematics surged as many European scientists left for the United States due to uneasy tension caused by Nazi Germany.[96] In 1930, the Institute for Advanced Study was founded to provide a space for the influx of scientists, such as Albert Einstein.[97] Many Princeton scientists would work on the Manhattan Project during the war, [98] including the entire physics department.[99] During World War II, Princeton offered an accelerated program for students to graduate early before entering the armed forces.[100] Student enrollment fluctuated from month to month, and many faculty were forced to teach unfamiliar subjects. Still, Dodds maintained academic standards and would establish a program for servicemen, so they could resume their education once discharged.[101]

Post-war years saw scholars renewing broken bonds through numerous conventions, expansion of the campus, and the introduction of distribution requirements.[102][103] The period saw the desegregation of Princeton, which was stimulated by changes to the New Jersey constitution.[104] Princeton began undertaking a sharper focus towards research in the years after the war, with the construction of Firestone Library in 1948 and the establishment of the Forrestal Research Center in the 1950s.[105] Government sponsored research increased sharply, particularly in the physics and engineering departments,[106] with much of it occurring at the new Forrestal campus.[107] Though, as the years progressed, scientific research at the Forrestal campus declined, and in 1973, some of the land was converted to commercial and residential spaces.[108]

Robert Goheen would succeed Dodds by unanimous vote and serve as president until 1972.[109] Goheen's presidency was characterized as being more liberal than previous presidents, and his presidency would see a rise in Black applicants,[110] as well as the eventual coeducation of the university in 1969.[111] During this period of rising diversity, the Third World Center (now known as the Carl A. Fields Center) was dedicated in 1971.[112] Goheen also oversaw great expansion for the university, with square footage increasing by 80 percentage.[113]

Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Princeton experienced unprecedented activism, with most of it centered on the Vietnam War.[114][115] While Princeton activism initially remained relatively timid compared to other institutions,[114] protests began to grow with the founding of a local chapter of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) in 1965, which organized many of the later Princeton protests.[114] In 1966, the SDS gained prominence on campus following picketing against a speech by President Lyndon B. Johnson, which gained frontpage coverage by the New York Times.[116][117] A notable point of contention on campus was the Institute for Defense Analyses (IDA) and would feature multiple protests,[114] some of which required police action.[118] As the years went on, the protests' agenda broadened to investments in South Africa, environmental issues, and women's rights.[114][119] In response to these broadening protests, the Council of the Princeton University Community (CPUC) was founded to serve as a method for greater student voice in governance.[120] Activism culminated in 1970 with a student, faculty, and staff member strike, so the university could become an "institution against expansion of the war."[121][b] Princeton's protests would taper off later that year, with The Daily Princetonian saying that, "Princeton 1970–71 was an emotionally burned out university."

In 1982, the residential college system was officially established under Goheen's successor William G. Bowen, who would serve until 1988.[122][123] During his presidency, Princeton's endowment increased from $625 million to $2 billion, and a major fundraising drive known as "A Campaign for Princeton" was conducted.[123] President Harold T. Shapiro would succeed Bowen and remain president until 2001. Shapiro would continue to increase the endowment, expand academic programs, raise student diversity, and oversaw the most renovations in Princeton's history.[124] In 2001, Princeton shifted the financial aid policy to a system that replaced all loans with grants.[125] That same year, Princeton elected its first female president, Shirley M. Tilghman.[126] Before retiring in 2012, Tilghman expanded financial aid offerings and conducted several major construction projects.[127]

Princeton's 20th and current president Christopher Eisgruber was elected in 2013.[128] In 2017, Princeton University unveiled a large-scale public history and digital humanities investigation into its historical involvement with slavery called the Princeton & Slavery Project. The project saw the publication of hundreds of primary sources, 80 scholarly essays, a scholarly conference, a series of short plays, and an art project.[129] In April 2018, university trustees announced that they would name two public spaces for James Collins Johnson and Betsey Stockton, enslaved people who lived and worked on Princeton's campus and whose stories were publicized by the project.[130] In 2019, large-scale student activism again entered the mainstream concerning the school's implementation of federal Title IX policy relating to Campus sexual assault.[131][132] The activism consisted of sit-ins in response to a student's disciplinary sentence.[133]

History of coeducation at the university dates back to the 19th century. Founded in 1887, the Evelyn College for Women in Princeton provided education to largely the daughters of professors and sisters of Princeton undergraduates. While no legal connection ever existed, many Princeton professors taught there and several Princeton administrations, like Francis Patton, were part of its board of trustees. It closed in 1897 following the death of its founder, Joshua McIlvaine.[134]

Coeducation at Princeton wouldn't resume until the 20th century. In 1947, three female members of the library staff enrolled in beginner Russian courses to deal with an increase in Russian literature in the library.[111] In 1961, Princeton admitted its first female graduate student, Sabra Follett Meservey,[135] who would go on to be the first woman to earn a master's degree.[111] Eight more women would enroll next year at the Graduate School,[135] and in 1964, T'sai-ying Cheng became the first woman at Princeton to receive a Ph.D. The first undergraduate female students came in 1963 when five women came to Princeton to study "critical languages." They were considered regular students for their year on campus, but were not candidates for a Princeton degree.[111] Following abortive discussions with Sarah Lawrence College to relocate the women's college to Princeton and merge it with the university in 1967,[136] the administration commissioned a report on admitting women. The final report was issued in January 1969, supporting the idea.[111] That same month, the trustees voted 24–8 in favor of coeducation and began preparing the institution for the transition.[137] The university finished these plans in April 1969 and announced there would be coeducation in September.[138] Ultimately, 101 female freshman and 70 female transfer students enrolled at Princeton on September 1969.[139][138][c] Those admitted were housed in Pyne Hall, a fairly isolated dormitory; a security system were added, although the women deliberately broke it within a day.[141]

In 1971, Mary St. John Douglas and Susan Savage Speers became the first female trustees,[111] and in 1974 quotas for men and women were eliminated.[142] Following a 1979 lawsuit, the eating clubs were required to go coeducational in 1991 after an appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court was denied.[143] In 2001, Princeton elected its first female president.[126]

The main campus consists of more than 200 buildings on 600 acres (2.4 km2) in Princeton, New Jersey.[4] The James Forrestal Campus, a smaller location designed mainly as a research and instruction complex, is split between nearby Plainsboro and South Brunswick. The campuses are situated about one hour from both New York City and Philadelphia on the train.[144] The university also owns more than 520 acres (2.1 km2) of property in West Windsor Township,[4] and is where Princeton is planning to construct a graduate student housing complex, which will be known as "Lake Campus North".[145]

The first building on campus was Nassau Hall, completed in 1756 and situated on the northern edge of the campus facing Nassau Street.[146] The campus expanded steadily around Nassau Hall during the early and middle 19th century.[147][148] The McCosh presidency (1868–88) saw the construction of a number of buildings in the High Victorian Gothic and Romanesque Revival styles, although many of them are now gone, leaving the remaining few to appear out of place.[149] At the end of the 19th century, much of Princeton's architecture was designed by the Cope and Stewardson firm (the same architects who designed a large part of Washington University in St. Louis and University of Pennsylvania) resulting in the Collegiate Gothic style for which the university is known for today.[150] Implemented initially by William Appleton Potter,[150] and later enforced by the university's supervising architect, Ralph Adams Cram,[151] the Collegiate Gothic style remained the standard for all new building on the Princeton campus until 1960.[152][153] A flurry of construction projects in the 1960s produced a number of new buildings on the south side of the main campus, many of which have been poorly received.[154] Several prominent architects have contributed some more recent additions, including Frank Gehry (Lewis Library),[155] I. M. Pei (Spelman Halls),[156] Demetri Porphyrios (Whitman College, a Collegiate Gothic project),[157] Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown (Frist Campus Center, among several others),[158] and Rafael Viñoly (Carl Icahn Laboratory).[159]

A group of 20th-century sculptures scattered throughout the campus forms the Putnam Collection of Sculpture. It includes works by Alexander Calder (Five Disks: One Empty), Jacob Epstein (Albert Einstein), Henry Moore (Oval with Points), Isamu Noguchi (White Sun), and Pablo Picasso (Head of a Woman).[160] Richard Serra's The Hedgehog and The Fox is located between Peyton and Fine halls next to Princeton Stadium and the Lewis Library.[161]

At the southern edge of the campus is Lake Carnegie, an artificial lake named for Andrew Carnegie. Carnegie financed the lake's construction in 1906 at the behest of a friend and his brother who were both Princeton alumni.[162] Carnegie hoped the opportunity to take up rowing would inspire Princeton students to forsake football, which he considered "not gentlemanly."[163] The Shea Rowing Center on the lake's shore continues to serve as the headquarters for Princeton rowing.[164]

Princeton's grounds were designed by Beatrix Farrand between 1912 and 1943. Her contributions were most recently recognized with the naming of a courtyard for her.[165] Subsequent changes to the landscape were introduced by Quennell Rothschild & Partners in 2000. In 2005, Michael Van Valkenburgh was hired as the new consulting landscape architect for Princeton's 2016 Campus Plan.[166] Lynden B. Miller was invited to work with him as Princeton's consulting gardening architect, focusing on the 17 gardens that are distributed throughout the campus.[167]

Nassau Hall is the oldest building on campus. Begun in 1754 and completed in 1756,[168] it was the first seat of the New Jersey Legislature in 1776,[169] was involved in the Battle of Princeton in 1777,[170] and was the seat of the Congress of the Confederation (and thus capitol of the United States) from June 30, 1783, to November 4, 1783.[171] Since 1911, the front entrance has been flanked by two bronze tigers, a gift of the Princeton Class of 1879, which replaced two lions previously given in 1889.[172] Starting in 1922, commencement has been held on the front lawn of Nassau Hall when there is good weather.[173] In 1966, Nassau Hall was added to the National Register of Historic Places.[174] Nowadays, it houses the office of the university president and other administrative offices.[175][176]

To the south of Nassau Hall lies a courtyard that is known as Cannon Green.[177] Buried in the ground at the center is the "Big Cannon," which was left in Princeton by British troops as they fled following the Battle of Princeton. It remained in Princeton until the War of 1812, when it was taken to New Brunswick.[178] In 1836 the cannon was returned to Princeton and placed at the eastern end of town. Two years later, it was moved to the campus under cover of night by Princeton students, and in 1840, it was buried in its current location.[179] A second "Little Cannon" is buried in the lawn in front of nearby Whig Hall. The cannon, which may also have been captured in the Battle of Princeton, was stolen by students of Rutgers University in 1875. The theft ignited the Rutgers-Princeton Cannon War. A compromise between the presidents of Princeton and Rutgers ended the war and forced the return of the Little Cannon to Princeton.[179] The protruding cannons are occasionally painted scarlet by Rutgers students who continue the traditional dispute.[180][181]

Though art collection at the university dates back to its very founding, the Princeton University Art Museum wasn't officially established until 1882 by President McCosh. Its establishment arose from a desire to provide direct access to works of art in a museum for a curriculum in the arts, an education system familiar to many European universities at the time. The museum took on the purposes of providing "exposure to original works of art and to teach the history of art through an encyclopedic collection of world art."[182]

Numbering over 112,000 objects, the collections range from ancient to contemporary art and come from Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas.[183] The museum's art is divided into ten extensive curatorial areas.[184] There is a collection of Greek and Roman antiquities, including ceramics, marbles, bronzes, and Roman mosaics from faculty excavations in Antioch, as well as other art from the ancient Egyptian, Byzantium, and Islamic worlds.[185] Medieval Europe is represented by sculpture, metalwork, and stained glass. The collection of Western European paintings includes examples from the early Renaissance through the 19th century, with pieces by Monet, Cézanne, and Van Gogh,[186] and features a growing collection of 20th-century and contemporary art, including paintings such as Andy Warhol's Blue Marilyn.[187]

The museum features a collection of Chinese and Japanese art, with holdings in bronzes, tomb figurines, painting, and calligraphy, as well as collections of Korean, Southeast, and Central Asian art.[188] Its collection of pre-Columbian art includes examples of Mayan and Olmec art, and its indigenous art ranges from Chile to Alaska to Greenland.[189] The museum has collections of old master prints and drawings,[190] and it has a comprehensive collection of over 20,000 photographs.[191] Approximately 750 works of African art are represented.[192] The Museum oversees the outside John B. Putnam, Jr., Memorial Collection of Sculpture.[193]

The Princeton University Chapel is located on the north side of campus near Nassau Street. It was built between 1924 and 1928 at a cost of $2.3 million,[194] approximately $34.7 million adjusted for inflation in 2020. Ralph Adams Cram, the university's supervising architect, designed the chapel, which he viewed as the crown jewel for the Collegiate Gothic motif he had championed for the campus.[195] At the time of its construction, it was the second largest university chapel in the world, after King's College Chapel, Cambridge.[196] It underwent a two-year, $10 million restoration campaign between 2000 and 2002.[197] The Chapel seats around 2,000 and serves as a site for religious services and local celebrations.[198]

Measured on the exterior, the chapel is 277 feet (84 m) long, 76 feet (23 m) wide at its transepts, and 121 feet (37 m) high.[199] The exterior is Pennsylvania sandstone, trimmed with Indiana limestone, and the interior is made of limestone and Aquia Creek sandstone.[199] The design evokes characteristics of an English church of the Middle Ages.[199] The extensive iconography, in stained glass, stonework, and wood carvings, has the common theme of connecting religion and scholarship.[195]

Published in 2008, the Sustainability Action Plan was the first formal plan for sustainability enacted by the university.[200] It focused on reducing greenhouse gas emissions, conservation of resources, and research, education, and civic engagement for sustainability through 10 year objectives.[201][202] Since the 2008 plan, Princeton has aimed at reducing its carbon dioxide emissions to 1990 levels without the purchase of market offsets and predicts to meet the goal by 2026 (the former goal was by 2020 but COVID-19 requirements delayed this).[203] Princeton released its second Sustainability Action Plan in 2019 on Earth Day with its main goal being reducing campus greenhouse gases to net zero by 2046 as well as other objectives building on those in the 2008 plan.[202][203] In 2021, the university agreed to divest from thermal coal and tar sand segments of the fossil fuel industry and from companies that are involved in climate disinformation after student protest.[204]

Princeton's Sustainability Action Plan also aims to have zero waste through recycling programs, sustainable purchasing, and behavioral and operational strategies.[205]

Princeton's 20th and current president is Christopher Eisgruber, who was appointed by the university's board of trustees in 2013.[128] The board is responsible for the overall direction of the university. It consists of no fewer than 23 and no more than 40 members at any one time, with the president of the university and the Governor of New Jersey serving as ex officio members. It approves the operating and capital budgets, supervises the investment of the university's endowment, and oversees campus real estate and long-range physical planning. The trustees also exercise prior review and approval concerning changes in major policies such as those in instructional programs and admission as well as tuition and fees and the hiring of faculty members.[206]

The university is composed of the Undergraduate College, the Graduate School, the School of Architecture, the School of Engineering and Applied Science, and the School of Public and International Affairs.[207] Additionally, the school's Bendheim Center for Finance provides education for the area of money and finance in lieu of a business school.[208] Princeton did host a Princeton Law School for a short period, before eventually closing in 1852 due to poor income.[209] Princeton's lack of other professional schools can be attributed to a university focus on undergraduates.[210]

The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study,[211] Princeton Theological Seminary, Rutgers University, and the Westminster Choir College of Rider University.[212] Princeton is a member of the Association of American Universities,[213] the Universities Research Association,[214] and the National Association of Independent Colleges and Universities.[215] The university is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education (MSCHE), with its last reaffirmation in 2014.[216]

Princeton University's endowment of $37.7 billion (per 2021 figures) was ranked as the fourth largest endowment in the United States,[2][217] and it had the greatest per-student endowment in the world at over $4.4 million per student.[218] The endowment is sustained through continued donations and is maintained by investment advisers.[219] Princeton's operating budget is over $2 billion per year, with 50% going to academic departments and programs, 33% to administrative and student service departments, 10% to financial aid departments, and 7% to the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory.[220]

Princeton follows a liberal arts curriculum,[210] and offers two bachelor's degrees to students: a Bachelor of Arts (A.B.) and a Bachelor of Science in Engineering (B.S.E.).[207] Typically, A.B. students choose a major (called a concentration) at the end of sophomore year, while B.S.E students declare at the end of their freshman year.[221] Students must complete distribution requirements, departmental requirements, and independent work to graduate with either degree.[210][207] A.B. students must complete distribution requirements in literature and the arts, science and engineering, social analysis, cultural difference, epistemology and cognition, ethical thought and moral values, historical analysis, and quantitative and computational reasoning; they must also have satisfactory ability in a foreign language.[207] Additionally, they must complete two papers of independent work during their junior year—known as the junior papers—and craft a senior thesis to graduate.[222][223] Both revolve around the concentration they are pursuing.[224] B.S.E majors complete fewer courses in the humanities and social sciences and instead fulfill requirements in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and computer programming.[207] They likewise must complete independent work, which typically involves a design project or senior thesis, but not the junior papers.[222][224] A.B. majors must complete 31 courses, whereas B.S.E majors must complete 36 courses.[225]

Students can choose from either 36 concentrations or create their own. They can also participate in 55 interdisciplinary certificate programs;[207] since Princeton does not offer an academic minor, the certificates effectively serve as one.[226] Course structure is determined by the instructor and department. Classes vary in their format, ranging from small seminars to medium-sized lecture courses to large lecture courses.[227] The latter two typically have precepts, which are extra weekly discussion sessions that are led by either the professor or a graduate student.[227][228] The average class meeting time is 3–4 hours a week, although this can vary depending on the course.[227] The student to faculty ratio is 5 to 1,[228] and a majority of classes have fewer than 20 students.[223] In the Fiske Guide to Colleges, academic culture is considered as "tight-knit, extremely hardworking, highly cooperative, and supportive."[70]

Undergraduates agree to adhere to an academic integrity policy called the Honor Code. Under the Honor Code, faculty do not proctor examinations; instead, the students proctor one another and must report any suspected violation to an Honor Committee made up of undergraduates.[229] The Committee investigates reported violations and holds a hearing if it is warranted. An acquittal at such a hearing results in the destruction of all records of the hearing; a conviction results in the student's suspension or expulsion.[230] Violations pertaining to all other academic work fall under the jurisdiction of the Faculty-Student Committee on Discipline.[231] Undergraduates are expected to sign a pledge on their written work affirming that they have not plagiarized the work.[232]

The first focus on issues of grade inflation by the Princeton administration began in 1998 when a university report was released showcasing a steady rise in undergraduate grades from 1973 to 1997.[233][234] Subsequent reports and discussion from the report culminated to when in 2004,[233] Nancy Weiss Malkiel, the Dean of the College, implemented a grade deflation policy to address the findings.[235] Malkiel's reason for the policy was that an A was becoming devalued as a larger percentage of the student body received one.[235] Following its introduction, the number of A's and average GPA on campus dropped, although A's and B's were still the most frequent grades awarded.[234][236] The policy received mixed approval from both faculty and students when first instituted.[233][237] Criticism for grade deflation continued through the years, with students alleging negative effects like increased competition and lack of willingness to choose challenging classes.[235][238] Other criticism included job market and graduate school prospects, although Malkiel responded by saying that she sent 3,000 letters to numerous institutions and employers informing them.[234][235] In 2009, transcripts began including a statement about the policy.[239]

In October 2013, Princeton President Christopher Eisgruber created a faculty committee to review the deflation policy.[239] In August 2014, the committee released a report recommending the removal of the policy and instead develop consistent standards for grading across individual departments.[240] In October 2014, following a faculty vote, the numerical targets were removed in response to the report.[241] In a 2020 analysis of undergraduate grades following the removal of a policy, there were no long-lasting effects, with the percent of students receiving A's higher than in 1998.[242]

For the 2019–2020 academic year, the Graduate School enrolled 2,971 students. Approximately 40% of the students were female, 42% were international, and 35% of domestic students were a member of a U.S. minority group. The average time to complete a doctoral degree was 5.7 years.[243] The university awarded 318 Ph.D. degrees and 174 final master's degrees for the 2019–2020 academic year.[243]

The Graduate School offers degrees in 42 academic departments and programs, which span the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering.[243][207] Doctoral education is available for all departments while master's degrees are only available in the architecture, engineering, finance, and public policy departments.[244] Doctoral education focuses on original, independent scholarship whereas master's degrees focus more on career preparation in both public life and professional practice. Graduate students can also concentrate in an interdisciplinary program and be granted a certificate. Joint degrees are available for several disciplines, as are dual M.D./Ph.D. or M.P.A./J.D. programs.[207][d]

Students in the graduate school can participate in regional cross-registration agreements, domestic exchanges with other Ivy League schools and similar institutions, and in international partnerships and exchanges.[245]

Princeton ranked first in the 2021 U.S. News rankings for the tenth consecutive year.[255][256] Princeton ranked fourth for undergrad teaching for 2021, falling from first place in the 2020 rankings.[256] In the 2022 Times Higher Education assessment of the world's best universities, Princeton was ranked 7th.[257] In the 2022 QS World University Rankings, it was ranked 20th overall in the world.[258]

In the 2021 U.S. News & World Report "Graduate School Rankings," 13 of Princeton's 14 graduate programs were ranked in their respective top 10 (with Engineering 22nd), 7 of them in the top 5, and two in the top spot (Economics and Mathematics).[259]

Princeton is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity."[260] Based on data for the 2020 fiscal year, the university received approximately $250 million in sponsored research for its main campus, with 81.4% coming from the government, 12.1% from foundations, 5.5% from industry, and 1.0% from private and other. An additional $120 million in sponsored research was for the Plasma Physics Lab; the main campus and the lab combined totaled to $370 million for sponsored research.[261] Based on 2017 data, the university ranked 72nd among 902 institutions for research expenditures.[262]

Based on 2018 data, Princeton's National Academy Membership totaled to 126, ranking 9th in the nation.[263] The university hosts 75 research institutes and centers and two national laboratories.[264] Princeton is a member of the New Jersey Space Grant Consortium.[265]

The Princeton University Library system houses over 13 million holdings through 11 buildings,[266] including seven million bound volumes, making it one of the largest university libraries in the world.[15] Built in 1948, the main campus library is Firestone Library and serves as the main repository for the humanities and social sciences.[266] Its collections include the autographed manuscript of F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby[267] and George F. Kennan's Long Telegram.[268] In addition to Firestone library, specialized libraries exist for architecture, art and archaeology, East Asian studies, engineering, music, public and international affairs, public policy and university archives, and the sciences.[269] The library system provides access to subscription-based electronic resources and databases to students.[270]

The Department of Energy's Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory (PPPL) stemmed from Project Matterhorn, a top secret cold war project created in 1951 aimed at achieving controlled nuclear fusion.[271] Princeton astrophysics professor Lyman Spitzer became the first director of the project and remained director until the lab's declassification in 1961 when it received its current name.[271] Today, it is an institute for fusion energy research and plasma physics research.[272]

Founded in 1955 and located at Princeton's Forrestal Campus since 1968, the NOAA's Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) conducts climate research and modeling.[273][274] Princeton faculty, research scientists, and graduate scientists can participate in research with the lab.[273]

Princeton offers several methods to apply: the Common Application, the Coalition Application, and the QuestBridge Application.[277][278] Princeton's application requires several writing supplements and submitting a graded written paper.[277]

Princeton's undergraduate program is highly selective, admitting 5.8% of undergraduate applicants in the 2019–2020 admissions cycle (for the Class of 2024).[5] The middle 50% range of SAT scores was 1470–1560, the middle 50% range of the ACT composite score was 33–35, and the average high school GPA was a 3.91.[5] For graduate admissions, in the 2021–2022 academic year, Princeton received 12,553 applications for admission and accepted 1,322 applicants, with a yield rate of 51%.[243]

In the 1950s, Princeton used an ABC system to function as a precursory early program, where admission officers would visit feeder schools and assign A, B, or C ratings to students.[279][e] From 1977 to 1995, Princeton employed an early action program, and in 1996, transitioned to an early decision program.[280] In September 2006, the university announced that all applicants for the Class of 2012 would be considered in a single pool, ending the school's early decision program.[281] In February 2011, following decisions by the University of Virginia and Harvard University to reinstate their early admissions programs, Princeton announced it would institute a single-choice early action option for applicants,[280] which it still uses.[277]

Princeton reinstated its transfer students program in 2018 after a three decades moratorium; the program encourages applicants from low-income families, the military, and community colleges.[282][283]

As of the 2021–2022 academic year, the total cost of attendance is $77,690.[284] 61% of all undergraduates receive financial aid, with the average financial aid grant being $57,251.[5] Tuition, room, and board is free for families making up to $65,000, and financial aid is offered to families making up to $180,000.[285] In 2001, expanding on earlier reforms, Princeton became the first university to eliminate the use of student loans in financial aid, replacing them with grants.[125][70] In addition, all admissions are need-blind, and financial aid meets 100% of demonstrated financial need.[286] The university does not use academic or athletic merit scholarships.[287]

Kiplinger magazine in 2019 ranked Princeton as the fifth best value school in a combined list comparing private universities, private liberal arts colleges, and public colleges, noting that the average graduating debt was $9,005.[288] For its 2021 rankings, the U.S. News & World Report ranked it second in its category for "Best Value Schools."[256]

The university guarantees housing for students for all four years,[289] with more than 98% of undergraduates living on campus.[290] Freshman and sophomores are required to live on campus, specifically in one of the University's six residential colleges. Once put into a residential college, students have an upperclassmen residential college adviser to adjust to college life and a faculty academic adviser for academic guidance.[291] Upperclassmen are given the option to keep living in the college or decide to move into upperclassmen dorms;[290] upperclassmen still remain affiliated with their college even if they live somewhere else.[70]

Each residential college has its own distinct layout and architecture.[291] Additionally, each college has its own faculty head, dean, director of studies, and director of student life. The colleges feature various amenities, such as dining halls, common rooms, laundry rooms, academic spaces, and arts and entertainment resources. Three of the colleges house students from all classes while the other three house only underclassmen.[292]

Princeton's residential college system dates back to when university president Woodrow Wilson's proposed the creation of quadrangles.[83] While the plan was vetoed,[83] it eventually made a resurgence with the creation of Wilson Lodge (now known as First College) in 1957 to provide an alternative to the eating clubs.[293] Wilson Lodge was dedicated as Wilson College in 1968 and served as an experiment for the residential college system. When enrollment increased in the 1970s, a university report in 1979 recommended the establishment of five residential colleges.[294] Funding was raised within a year,[295] leading to the development of Rockefeller College (1982), Mathey College (1983), Butler College (1983), and Forbes College (1984).[293] Whitman College was founded and constructed in 2007 at a cost of $100 million.[296] Butler's dorms were demolished in 2007 and a new complex was built in 2009.[297] Butler and Mathey previously acted as only underclassmen colleges, but transitioned to four-year colleges in fall 2009.[298] Princeton is scheduled to open up two new residential colleges—Resident College 7 and Residential College 8—in time for the 2022–2023 academic year.[299][f]

Princeton has one graduate residential college, known as the Graduate College, located on a hill about half a mile from the main campus.[301][g] The location of the Graduate College was the result of a dispute between Woodrow Wilson and then-Graduate School Dean Andrew Fleming West. Wilson preferred a central location for the college; West wanted the graduate students as far as possible from the campus, and ultimately, he prevailed.[303] The Graduate College is composed of a large Collegiate Gothic section crowned by Cleveland Tower,[301] a memorial tower for former Princeton trustee Grover Cleveland.[304][305] The tower also has 67 carillon bells, making it one of the largest carillons in the world.[306] The attached New Graduate College provides a modern contrast in architectural style to the gothic Old Graduate College.[307] Graduate students also have the option of living in student apartments.[308]

First College (founded 1957)

Forbes College (founded 1984)

Mathey College (founded 1983)

Rockefeller College (founded 1982)

Butler College (founded 1983)

Whitman College (founded 2007)

Although each residential college has a dining hall for students in the college, they each vary in their environment and food served.[309][310] Upperclassmen who no longer live in the college can choose from a variety of options: join an eating club and choose a shared meal plan; join a dining co-op, where groups of students eat, prepare, and cook food together; or organize their own dining.[309] The university offers kosher dining through the Center for Jewish Life and halal dining options for Muslim students in the dining halls.[309]

Social life takes place primarily on campus and is involved heavily with one's residential college or eating club.[289][144] Residential colleges host a variety of social events and activities, ranging from Broadway show outings to regular barbecues.[291] Eating clubs, while not affiliated with the university, are co-ed organizations that serve as social centers, host events, and invite guest speakers.[311][70] Additionally, they serve as a place of community for upperclassmen.[311][144] Five of the clubs have first-serve memberships called "sign-ins" and six clubs use a selective process, in which students must "bicker."[312] This requires prospective members to undergo an interviewing process.[313] Each eating club has a fee to join which ranges from around $9,000 to $10,000. As a result, Princeton increases financial aid for upperclassmen, and the eating clubs also offer financial assistance.[314][315] Cumulatively, there is ten clubs located on Prospect Avenue—Cannon, Cap and Gown, Charter, Cloister, Colonial, Cottage, Ivy, Quadrangle, Tiger, and Tower—and one located on Washington Road—Terrace.[316][312] 68% of upperclassmen are members of a club, with each one containing around 150 to 200 students[312]

Princeton hosts around 500 recognized student organizations and several campus centers.[290]

The Undergraduate Student Government (USG) serves as Princeton's student government.[317] The USG funds student organization events, sponsors campus events, and represents the undergraduate student body when convening with faculty and administration.[317]

Founded in about 1765, the American Whig-Cliosophic Society is the nation's oldest collegiate political, literary, and debate society,[318][144] and is the largest and oldest student organization on campus.[319] The Whig-Clio Society has several subsidiary organizations, each specialized to different areas of politics: the Princeton Debate Panel, International Relations Council, Princeton Mock Trial, and Princeton Model Congress.[320] The International Relations Council manages two Model United Nations conferences: the Princeton Diplomatic Invitational (PDI) for collegiate competition and the Princeton Model United Nations Conference (PMUNC) for high school competition.[321]

There are several publications on campus and a radio station. Founded in 1876, The Daily Princetonian, otherwise known as The Prince, is the second oldest college daily student newspaper in the United States.[322][323] Other publications include The Nassau Literary Review,[324] the Princeton Tory, a campus journal of conservative thought,[325] The Princeton Diplomat, the only student-run magazine on global affairs,[326] the Princeton Political Review, the only multi-partisan political publication on campus,[327] and the recently revived Princeton Progressive, the only left-leaning political publication on campus,[328] among others. Princeton's WPRB (103.3 FM) radio station is the oldest licensed college radio station in the nation.[144]

Princeton is home to a variety of performing arts and music groups. Many of the groups are represented by the Performing Arts Council.[330] Dating back to 1883, the Princeton Triangle Club is America's oldest touring musical-comedy theater group.[331][332] It performs its annual Triangle Show every fall at the 1,000 seat McCarter Theatre,[333][329] as well as original musical comedies, revues, and other shows throughout campus.[332] Princeton's oldest choir is the Glee Club, which began in 1874.[334] The comedic scramble Tiger Band was formed in 1919 and plays at halftime shows and other events.[335] Other groups include the Princeton University Orchestra, the flagship symphony orchestra group founded in 1896,[336] and the Princeton Symphony Orchestra,[337] both of which perform at Alexander Hall.[338][336]

A cappella groups are a staple of campus life, with many holding concerts, informal shows, and arch sings.[334][339] Arch sings are where a cappella performances are held in one of Princeton's many gothic arches. The oldest a cappella ensemble is the Nassoons, which were formed in 1941. All-male groups include the Tigertones (1946) and Footnotes (1959); all-female groups include the Tigerlilies (1971), Tigressions (1981), Wildcats (1987); the oldest coed a cappella group in the Ivy League is the Princeton Katzenjammers (1973), which was followed by the Roaring 20 (1983) and Shere Khan (1994).[339]

Princeton features several campus centers for students that provide resources and information for students with certain identities. These include the Center for Jewish Life, the Davis International Center, the Carl A. Fields Center for Equality and Cultural Understanding, the Women's Center, and the LGBT Center. The Frist Campus Center and the Campus Club are additional facilities for the entire campus community that hold various activities and events.[290]

Princeton features 15 chaplaincies and multiple religious student groups. The following faiths are represented on campus: Baha'i, Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, Islam, Sikhism, and Unitarian Universalism.[340]

Princeton students partake in a wide variety of campus traditions, both past and present.[341]

Current traditions Princeton students celebrate include the ceremonial bonfire, which takes place on the Cannon Green behind Nassau Hall. It is held only if Princeton beats both Harvard University and Yale University at football in the same season.[342] Another tradition is the use of traditional college cheers at events and reunions, like the "Locomotive", which dates back to before 1894.[343][344] Princeton students abide by the tradition of never exiting the campus through FitzRandolph Gates until one graduates. According to tradition, anyone who exits campus before their graduation will not graduate.[345][346] A more controversial tradition is Newman's Day, where some students attempt to drink 24 beers in the 24 hours of April 24. According to The New York Times, "the day got its name from an apocryphal quote attributed to Paul Newman: '24 beers in a case, 24 hours in a day. Coincidence? I think not.'"[347] Newman has spoken out against the tradition.[347] One of the biggest traditions celebrated annually are Reunions, which are massive annual gatherings of alumni.[348] At Reunions, a traditional parade of alumni and their families, known as the "P-rade", process through the campus.[349]

Princeton also has several traditions that have faded into the past. One of the them was clapper theft, the act of climbing to the top of Nassau Hall to steal the bell clapper, which rings to signal the start of classes on the first day of the school year. For safety reasons, the clapper was permanently removed.[350] Another was the Nude Olympics, an annual nude and partially nude frolic in Holder Courtyard that used to take place during the first snow of the winter. Started in the early 1970s, the Nude Olympics went co-educational in 1979 and gained much notoriety with the American press. Due to issues of sexual harassment and safety reasons, the administration banned the Olympics in 2000 to the disappointment of students.[351][352]

"Old Nassau" has been Princeton University's school song since 1859, when it was written that year by freshman Harlan Page Peck. It was originally published in the Nassau Literary Magazine, where it won the magazine's prize for best college song. After an unsuccessful attempt at singing it to Auld Lang Syne's melody, Karl Langlotz, a Princeton professor, wrote the music for it.[353] In 1987, the university changed the gendered lyrics of "Old Nassau" to reflect the school's co-educational student body.[354]

Tiger Transit is the bus system of the university, mostly open to the public and linking university campuses and areas around Princeton.[355] NJ Transit provides bus service on the 600, 606 and 609 lines and rail service on the Dinky, a small commuter train that provides service to the Princeton Junction Station.[356] Coach USA, through their subsidiary Suburban Transit, provides bus service to New York City and other destinations in New Jersey.[356]

Undergraduate racial demographics for the 2020–2021 academic year[357]

Based on data from the 2019–2020 academic year, Princeton enrolled 5,422 undergraduates, 2,971 postgraduates, and 26 other graduates enrolled in credit courses, making a total school population of 8,419.[5] Total enrollment was split 54% male and 46% female.[5] For the 2020–2021 academic year, racial demographics for undergraduates was roughly 29% Asian, 10% Black, 12% Hispanic, 39% White, 6% Multiracial, and 4% Unknown.[357] Master's and doctoral students followed relatively similar trends.[357] According to the Fiske Guide of Colleges, the student body is considered racially and ethnically diverse, although some students consider there to be social stratification.[70]

Princeton has made significant progress in expanding the diversity of its student body in recent years. The 2021 admitted freshman class was one of the most diverse in the school's history, with 68% of students identifying as students of color.[358] The university has worked to increase its enrollment of first-generation and low-income students in recent years.[359] The median family income of Princeton students is $186,100, with 72% of students coming from the top 20% highest-earning families.[360] In 2017, 22% of freshman qualified for federal Pell Grants,